Latest effort at transparency just muddies water by Carolyn Pugsley Research Paper

Latest effort at transparency just muddies water by Carolyn Pugsley and Alexandra Module - Research Paper Example The article is written by Carolyn Pugsley and Alexandra Module. The main objective of the article is to state the reforms which are adopted by the federal government of Australia in order to disclose the remunerations of seniors executives of companies. This reform has been adopted by the Australian government with the intention of facilitating better transparency for shareholders with respect to the remuneration structures of senior executives. Moreover, this reform will facilitate management of companies with minimum regulatory pressure (Pugsley & Module, 2012). Accounting Theory (Part B) The appropriate theory for this article will be ‘Legitimacy Theory’. This theory states that the remuneration policy of an organisation is conducted in a legitimated manner in accordance with it the board of directors (BOD) of the organisation is required to justify that the remuneration policy adopted by them are according to the company law and Accounting Standards of Australia. Mor eover, the remuneration of BOD of organisations should be justified to the shareholders as well as society. The remuneration policy of senior executives is required to be revealed in order to ascertain that remunerations are provided in keeping with best practices under the code of corporate governance (AFAANZ, 2010). Analysis (Part C) The legitimacy theory signifies that the remuneration policy adopted by companies is in adherence with rules as well as regulations of the government. This theory also states that the financial and annual reports which are prepared by companies are in accordance with accounting standards and company law. In this similar context, the article depicts that the remuneration policy of senior executives will aid in determining that the remunerations as well as rewards which are acquired by senior executives are according to accounting standards. The theory signifies that the remuneration of senior executives should be revealed in an appropriate manner in an nual reports with the motive of depicting the performance of companies to stakeholders. Moreover, the theory assists in minimising pressure on the management as the audit committee is familiar with the regulations of remuneration policy. The article depicts that the amount of remuneration of the senior executives should be revealed in the financial statements or annual reports of companies which will signify the performance of companies among stakeholders and market segments. Companies are required to adopt appropriate remuneration policies which will be legally enacted. The article also reveals that the remunerations of the senior executive should be disclosed in order to ascertain transparency towards shareholders. Moreover, the disclosure of the remuneration policy will assist companies in better regulatory operations (Crombie, 2010). It has been observed from the article that the government of Australia has formulated policy with regard to the disclosure of remunerations of seni or executive. The policy devised by the government is perceived to be complex for auditors as the remuneration report will comprise three segments which include ‘past pay’, ‘present pay’ as well as ‘future pay’. Furthermore, annual reports of companies with excess or decreased incentives and remunerations will portray ineffective performance of companies. Companies should adopt an effective policy of representing remuneration of senior executive which can be linked with the companies’

Risk factors for depression Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words

Risk factors for depression - Research Paper Example The best treatment options are said to be the combination of both medications and psychotherapy, but electroconvulsive therapy (ECT) is also an option when others do not work. Depression: Evidences of Risk Factors, Signs and Symptoms, and Treatment Methods Introduction The human experience of sadness and gloom is normal among individuals, but it may be different once it becomes chronic and interferes with activities of daily living. Depression is one of the common causes in seeking professional psychologic help, and timely interventions could greatly help the depressed individual. Although depression may appear to be merely preoccupations of negative emotions, it can lead to dreadful effects, including suicide, once neglected. The diagnosis of depression may also be co-existing with other illnesses as well. It comes in different types with several signs and symptoms, and may be caused by a variety of elements, of which the present text will explore the risk factors associated with th e condition using recent studies as evidences. Risk factors Numerous researches have been published to study risk factors of depression. In a 7-year longitudinal population study, Lorant et al. (2007) determined if longitudinal change in socio-economic factors affect change of depression level. Low socio-economic status, especially in the context of material standards of living, has constantly been associated with increased incidence of depression. Results gathered show that a decline in socio-economic status is consequent to increased risks of depression, looking also into ceasing cohabitation with a partner and unemployment. Ceasing cohabitation with a partner increased risk levels of depression particularly among women; and unemployment did not influence the level or risk of depression, in contrast to other cited studies, but with considerations of the research design and methods (p. 296). It is also seen that generally, the negative effects of worsening socio-economic conditions were greater than the positive effects when these conditions improved (p. 296). This study presents that socio-economic factors, including income, poverty, unemployment, education, and social relationships, are linked to prevalence of depression, where both have an inversely proportional relationship. Netterstrom et al. (2008) focus on work-related psychosocial stressors in relation to the development of depression. Using several models, the authors review previous researches to assess such relationship, basing on either psychiatric scales, scales with with diagnostic classifications, or antidepressant prescription, or depression measured with a questionnaire (p. 121). According to the review, occupational psychosocial factors were associated with the development of depression, especially in instances where there are high psychological demands and low degree of social support (p. 126). Demands would, however, vary according to the job and the work setting. This review, in accordanc e to the studies looked into, implies that an individual’s work, especially job satisfaction and social support in such occupation, is linked to depression. When an individual feels satisfied and fulfilled with his or her job and receives positive reinforcement, there are lesser chances for depression, and vice versa.

Database security and encryption

Database security and encryption Introduction Organisations are increasingly relying on the distributed information systems to gain productivity and efficiency advantages, but at the same time are becoming more vulnerable to security threats. Database systems are an integral component of this distributed information system and hold all the data which enables the whole system to work. A database can be defined as a shared collection of logically related data and a description of this data, designed to meet the information needs of an organization. A database system is considered as a collection of related data, database management system (DBMS) a software that manages (define, create and maintain) and controls the access to the database, and a collection of database application(s) a program that interacts with the database at some point in its execution (typical example is a SQL statement) along with the DBMS and the database itself [1]. Organisations have adopted database systems as the key data management technology for decision-making and day-to-day operations. Databases are designed to hold large amounts of data and management of data involves both defining structures for storage of information and providing mechanisms for manipulation of information. As the data is to be shared among several users the system must avoid anomalous results and ensure the safety of the information stored despite system crashes and attempts at unauthorized access. The data involved here can be highly sensitive or confidential, thus making the security of the data managed by these systems even more crucial as any security breach does not affect only a single application or user but can have disastrous consequences on the entire organisation. A number of security techniques have been suggested over the period of time to tackle the security issues. These can be classified as access control, inference control, flow control, and encryptio n. 1.1 A Short History Starting from the day one when database applications were build using hierarchical and network systems to todays date when we have so many different database systems like relational databases (RDBMS), object-oriented databases (OODBMS), object-relational databases (ORDBMS), eXtended Query (XQUERY); one factor which was, is, and will be of the utmost importance is the security of the data involved. Data always has been a valuable asset for companies and must be protected. Organizations spend millions these days in order to achieve the best security standards for the DBMS. Most of an organizations sensitive and proprietary data resides in a DBMS, thus the security of the DBMS is a primary concern. When we talk of securing a DBMS, this is with respect to both the internal and the external users. The internal users are the organization employees like database administrators, application developers, and end users who just use the application interface, which fetch its data from one of the databases and the external users can be the employees who do not have access to the database or an outsider who has nothing to do with the organization. The other factors which has made data security more crucial is the recent rapid growth of the web based information systems and applications and the concept of mobile databases. Any intentional or accidental event that can adversely affect a database system is considered as a threat to database and database security can be defined as a mechanism that protects the database against such intentional or accidental threats. Security breaches can be classified as unauthorized data observation, incorrect data modification, and data unavailability, which can lead to loss of confidentiality, availability, integrity, privacy, and theft and fraud. Unauthorized data observation results in disclosure of information to users who might not be entitled to have access to such kind of information. Incorrect data modification intentional or unintentional leaves the database in an incorrect state. Data can hamper the functionality of an entire organization in a proper way if not available when needed. Thus the security in terms of databases can be broadly classified into access security and internal security. Access security refers to the mechanisms implemented to restrict any sort of unauthorized access to the database; examples can be authorization methods such as every user has a unique username and password to establish him as a legitimate user when trying to connect to the database. When the user tries to connect to the database the login credentials will be checked against a set of usernames and password combinations setup under a security rule by a security administrator. Internal security can be referred to as an extra level of security, which comes into picture if someone has already breached the access security such as getting hold of a valid username and password, which can help getting access to the database. So the security mechanism implemented within the database such as encrypting the data inside the database can be classed as internal security, which prevents the data to be compromised even if someone has got unauthorized access to the database. Every organization needs to identify the threats they might be subjected to and the subsequently appropriate security plans and countermeasures should be taken, taking into consideration their implementation costs and effects on performance. Addressing these threats helps the enterprise to meet the compliance and risk mitigation requirements of the most regulated industries in the world. 1.2 How Databases are Vulnerable According to David Knox [2], Securing the Database may be the single biggest action an organization can take, to protect its assets. Most commonly used database in an enterprise organization is relational database. Data is a valuable resource in an enterprise organization. Therefore they have a very strong need of strictly controlling and managing it. As discussed earlier it is the responsibility of the DBMS to make sure that the data is kept secure and confidential as it the element which controls the access to the database. Enterprise database infrastructure is subject to an overwhelming range of threats most of the times. The most common threats which an Enterprise Database is exposed to are: Excessive Privilege Abuse when a user or an application has been granted database access privileges which exceeds the requirements of their job functions. For example an academic institute employee whose job only requires only the ability to change the contact information for a student can also change the grades for the student. Legitimate Privilege Abuse legitimate database access privileges can also be abused for malicious purposes. We have two risks to consider in this situation. The first one is confidential/sensitive information can be copied using the legitimate database access privilege and then sold for money. The second one and perhaps the more common is retrieving and storing large amounts of information on client machine for no malicious reason, but when the data is available on an endpoint machine rather than the database itself, it is more susceptible to Trojans, laptop theft, etc. Privilege Elevation software vulnerabilities which can be found in stored procedures, built-in functions, protocol implementations or even SQL statements. For example, a software developer can gain the database administrative privileges by exploiting the vulnerabilities in a built-in function. Database Platform Vulnerabilities any additional services or the operating system installed on the database server can lead to an authorized access, data corruption, or denial of service. For example the Blaster Worm which took advantage of vulnerability in Windows 2000 to create denial of service. SQL Injection the most common attack technique. In a SQL injection attack, the attacker typically inserts unauthorized queries into the database using the vulnerable web application input forms and they get executed with the privileges of the application. This can be done in the internal applications or the stored procedures by internal users. Access to entire database can be gained using SQL injection Weak Audit a strong database audit is essential in an enterprise organization as it helps them to fulfill the government regulatory requirements, provides investigators with forensics link intruders to a crime deterring the attackers. Database Audit is considered as the last line of database defense. Audit data can identify the existence of a violation after the fact and can be used to link it to a particular user and repair the system in case corruption or a denial of service attack has occurred. The main reasons for a weak audit are: it degrades the performance by consuming the CPU and disk resources, administrators can turn off audit to hide an attack, organizations with mixed database environments cannot have a uniform, scalable audit process over the enterprise as the audit processes are unique to database server platform Denial of Service access to network applications or data is denied to the intended users. A simple example can be crashing a database server by exploiting vulnerability in the database platform. Other common denial of service techniques are data corruption, network flooding, server resource overload (common in database environments). Database Protocol Vulnerabilities SQL Slammer worm took advantage of a flaw in the Microsoft SQL Server protocol to force denial of service conditions. It affected 75,000 victims just over 30 minutes dramatically slowing down general internet traffic. [Analysis of BGP Update Surge during Slammer Worm Attack] Weak Authentication obtaining legitimate login credentials by improper way contributes to weak authentication schemes. The attackers can gain access to a legitimate users login details by various ways: by repeatedly entering the username/password combination until he finds the one which works (common or weak passwords can be guessed easily), by convincing someone to share their login credentials, by stealing the login credentials by copying the password files or notes. Backup Data Exposure there are several cases of security breaches involving theft of database backup tapes and hard disks as this media is thought of as least prone to attack and is often completely unprotected form attack [3]. All these security threats can be accounted for unauthorized data observation, incorrect data modification and data unavailability. A complete data security solution must take into consideration the secrecy/confidentiality, integrity and availability of data. Secrecy or confidentiality refers to the protection of data against unauthorized disclosure, integrity refers to prevention of incorrect data modification and availability refers to prevention of hardware/software errors and malicious data access denials making the database unavailable. 1.3 Security Techniques As organizations increase their adoption of database systems as the key data management technology for day-to-day operations and decision-making, the security of data managed by these systems has become crucial. Damage and misuse of data affect not only a single user or application, but may have disastrous consequences on the entire organization. There are four main control measures which can be used to provide security of data in databases. These are: Access Control Inference Control Flow Control Data Encryption Chapter 2 Literature Review Secure and secret means of communication has been always desired for in the field of database systems. There is always a possibility of interception by a party outside of the sender-receiver domain when data is transmitted. Modern digital-based encryption methods form the basis of todays world database security. Encryption in its earlier days was used by military and government organizations to facilitate secret information but in present times it is used for protecting information within many kinds of civilian systems. In 2007 the U.S. government reported that 71% of companies surveyed utilized encryption or some of their data in transit [4]. 2.1 Encryption Encryption is defined as the process of transforming information (plaintext) using an encryption algorithm (cipher) into unreadable form (encrypted information called as ciphertext) making it inaccessible to anyone without possessing special knowledge to decrypt the information. The encoding of the data by a special algorithm that renders the data unreadable by any program without the decryption key, is called encryption [1]. The code and cipher are the two methods of encrypting data. The encryption of data or a message is accomplished by one, or both, of the methods of encoding or enciphering. Each involves distinct methodologies and the two are differentiated by the level at which they are carried out. Encoding is performed at the word or block level and deals with the manipulation of groups of characters. Enciphering works at the character level. This includes scrambling individual characters in a message, referred to as transposition, and substitution, or replacing characters with others. Codes generally are designed to replace entire words or blocks of data in a message with other words or blocks of data. Languages can be considered codes, since words and phrases represent ideas, objects, and actions. There are codes that substitute entire phrases or groups of numbers or symbols with others. A single system may employ both levels of encoding. For example, consider a code encryption scheme as follows: the = jam, man = barn, is = fly, dangerous = rest. Then the message, the man is dangerous, would read in encrypted form, jam barn fly rest. Although overly-simplistic, this example illustrates the basis of codes. With the advent of electrical-based communications, codes became more sophisticated in answer to the needs of the systems. For example, the inventions of Morse code and the telegraph dictated a need for secure transmission that was more sophisticated. Codes are very susceptible to breaking and possess a large exposure surface with regard to interception and decryption via analysis. Also, there are no easily-implemented means by which to detect breaches in the system. The other method of encryption is the cipher. Instead of replacing words or blocks of numbers or symbols with others, as does the code, the cipher replaces individual or smaller sets of letters, numbers, or characters with others, based on a certain algorithm and key. Digital data and information, including vi deo, audio, and text, can be separated into groups, or blocks, of bits, and then manipulated for encryption by such methods as XOR (exclusive OR), encoding-decoding, and rotation. As an example, let us examine the basics of the XOR method. Here, a group of bits (e.g., a byte) of the data is compared to a digital key, and the exclusive-or operation is performed on the two to produce an encrypted result. Figure 2 illustrates the process. Figure 2: The XOR process for Encryption When the exclusive-or operation is performed on the plaintext and key, the ciphertext emerges and is sent. The receiver performs the exclusive-or operation on the ciphertext and the same key, and the original plaintext is reproduced [5]. Encryption can be reversible and irreversible. Irreversible techniques do not allow the encrypted data to be decrypted, but at the same time the encrypted data can be used to obtain valid statistical information. Irreversible techniques are rarely used as compared to the reversible ones. The whole process of transmitting data securely over an insecure network system is called as cryptosystem that includes à » An encryption key to encrypt the data (plaintext) à » An encryption algorithm that transforms the plaintext into encrypted information (ciphertext) with the encryption key à » A decryption key to decrypt the ciphertext à » A decryption algorithm that transforms the ciphertext back into plaintext using the decryption key [1]. 2.2 Encryption Techniques The goals in digital encryption are no different than those of historical encryption schemes. The difference is found in the methods, not the objectives. Secrecy of the message and keys are of paramount importance in any system, whether they are on parchment paper or in an electronic or optical format [5]. Various encryption techniques are available and broadly can be classified into two categories; asymmetric and symmetric encryption. In symmetric encryption the sender and receiver share the same algorithm and key for encryption and decryption and depends on safe communication network for encryption key exchange whereas in asymmetric encryption uses different keys for encryption and decryption. Asymmetric encryption gave birth to the concept of public and private keys and is preferred to symmetric encryption being more secure [1], [5]. 2.2.1 Symmetric Encryption Symmetric encryption also known as single-key encryption or conventional encryption was the only encryption and by far the most widely used of the two types before the concept of public-key encryption came into picture. The figure below illustrates the symmetric encryption process. The original message (plaintext) is converted into apparently random information (ciphertext) using an algorithm and a key. The key is a value independent of the plaintext. The algorithm produces different outputs for specific keys used at the time i.e. the output of the algorithm changes if the key is changed. The ciphertext produced is then transmitted and is transformed back to the original plaintext by using a decryption algorithm and the same key that was used for encryption. Figure: Simplified Model of Conventional Encryption [7 page 22] The model can be better understood by the following example. A source produces a message X = [X1, X2, X3 à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦XM] in plaintext. The M elements of X are letters in some finite alphabet. The alphabet usually consisted of 26 capital letters traditionally but nowadays; binary alphabet {0,1} is used. An encryption key K = [K1, K2, K3 à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦.KJ] is generated and is shared between the sender and the receiver using a secure channel. Also a third party can generate the encryption key and securely deliver it to both the sender and the receiver. Using the plaintext X and the encryption key K as input, the encryption algorithm produces the ciphertext Y = [Y1, Y2, Y3 à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦.YN] as Y = EK(X) where E is the encryption algorithm and the ciphertext Y is produced as the function of the plaintext X using E. At the receivers end the ciphertext is converted back to the plaintext as X = DK(Y) where D is the decryption algorithm. Figure: Model of Conventional Cryptosystem [7 page 23] The common symmetric block ciphers are Data Encryption Standard (DES), Triple DES, and Advanced Encryption Standard (AES) 2.2.1.1 The Data Encryption Standard Data Encryption Standard has been used in the most widely used encryption schemes including Kerberos 4.0. The National Bureau of Standards adopted it as a standard in 1977 [7]. DES operates on 64-bit blocks using a 56-bit key. Like other encryption schemes, in DES there are two inputs to the encryption function, the plaintext to be encrypted and the key. The plaintext should be of 64 bits in length and the key length is 56 bits obtained by stripping off the 8 parity bits, ignoring every eighth bit from the given 64-bit key. The output from the algorithm after 16 rounds of identical operations is the 64-bit block of ciphertext. A suitable combination of permutations and combinations (16 times) on the plaintext is the basic building block of the DES. Same algorithm is used for both encryption and decryption except for processing the key schedule in the reverse order [6], [7]. The 64-bit plaintext is passed through an initial permutation (IP) that produces a permuted input by rearranging the bits. This is followed by16 rounds of the same function, which involves both permutation and substitution functions. The last round results in the output consisting of 64-bits that are a function of the input plaintext and the key. The left and the right halves of the output are swapped to produce the preoutput. The preoutput is passed through a final permutation (IP-1), an inverse of the initial permutation function to achieve the 64-bit ciphertext. The overall process for DES is explained in the diagram below Figure: General Depiction of DES Encryption Algorithm [7 page 67] The right hand side of the diagram explains how the 56-bit key is used during the process. The key is passed through a permutation function initially and then for each of the 16 rounds a subkey (Ki) is generated, by combining left circular shift and a permutation. For every round the permutation function is same, but the subkey is different because of the repeated iteration of the key bits. Since the adoption of DES as a standard, there have always been concerns about the level of security provided by it. The two areas of concern in DES are the key length and that the design criteria for the internal structure of the DES, the S-boxes, were classified. The issue with the key length was, it was reduced to 56 bits from 128 bits as in the LUCIFER algorithm [add a new reference], which was the base for DES and everyone suspected that this is an enormous decrease making it too short to withstand brute-force attacks. Also the user could not be made sure of any weak points in the internal structure of DES that would allow NSA to decipher the messages without the benefit of the key. The recent work on differential cryptanalysis and subsequent events indicated that the internal structure of DES is very strong. 2.2.1.2 Triple DES Triple DES was developed as an alternative to the potential vulnerability of the standard DES to a brute-force attack. It became very popular in Internet-based applications. Triple DES uses multiple encryptions with DES and multiple keys as shown in the figure [below]. Triple DES with two keys is relatively preferred to DES but Triple DES with three keys is preferred overall. The plaintext P is encrypted with the first key K1, then decrypted with the second key K2 and then finally encrypted again with the third key K3.According to the figure the ciphertext C is produced as C = EK3[DK2[EK1[P]]] These keys need to be applied in the reverse order while decrypting. The ciphertext c is decrypted with the third key K3 first, then encrypted with the second key K2, and then finally decrypted again with the first key K1; also called as Encrypt-Decrypt-Encrypt (EDE) mode, producing the plaintext P as P = DK1[EK2[DK3[C]]] Figure: Triple DES encryption/decryption [6 page 72] 2.2.1.3 Advanced Encryption Standard 2.3 Encryption in Database Security Organizations are increasingly relying on, possibly distributed, information systems for daily business; hence they become more vulnerable to security breaches even as they gain productivity and efficiency advantages. Database security has gained a substantial importance over the period of time. Database security has always been about protecting the data data in the form of customer information, intellectual property, financial assets, commercial transactions, and any number of other records that are retained, managed and used on the systems. The confidentiality and integrity of this data needs to be protected as it is converted into information and knowledge within the enterprise. Core enterprise data is stored in relational databases and then offered up via applications to users. These databases typically store the most valuable information assets of an enterprise and are under constant threat, not only from the external users but also from the legitimate users such as trusted ins iders, super users, consultants and partners or perhaps their unprotected user accounts that compromise the system and take or modify the data for some inappropriate purpose. To begin with, classifying the types of information in the database and the security needs associated with them is the first and important step. As databases are used in a multitude of ways, it is useful to have some of the primary functions characterized in order to understand the different security requirements. A number of security techniques have been developed and are being developed for database security, encryption being one of them. Encryption is defined as the process of transforming information (plaintext) using an encryption algorithm (cipher) into unreadable form (encrypted information called as ciphertext) making it inaccessible to anyone without possessing special knowledge to decrypt the information. The encoding of the data by a special algorithm that renders the data unreadable by any program without the decryption key, is called encryption [1]. 2.3.1 Access Encryption There are multiple reasons for access control to confidential information in enterprise computing environments being challenging. Few of them are: First, the number of information services in an enterprise computing environment is huge which makes the management of access rights essential. Second, a client might not know which access rights are necessary in order to be granted access to the requested information before requesting access. Third, flexible access rights including context-sensitive constraints must be supported by access control Access control schemes can be broadly classified in two types: proof-based and encryption-based access control schemes. In a proof-based scheme, a client needs to assemble some access rights in a proof of access, which demonstrates to a service that the client is authorized to access the requested information. Proof-based access control is preferred to be used for scenarios where client specific access rights required are flexible. It becomes easy to include support for constraints if the access rights are flexible. However, it is not the same case for covert access requirements. According to the existing designs, it is assumed that a service can inform a client of the nature of the required proof of access. The service does not need to locate the required access rights, which can be an expensive task, in proof-based access control scheme. [9] In an encryption-based access-control scheme, confidential information is provided to any client in an encrypted form by the service. Clients who are authorized to access the information have the corresponding decryption key. Encryption-based access-control scheme is attractive for scenarios where there are lots of queries to a service shielding the service from having to run client-specific access control. As compared to proof-based access control it is straightforward to add support for covert access requirements to existing encryption-based architectures. In particular, all the information is encrypted by the service as usual, but the client is not told about the corresponding decryption key to use. The client has a set of decryption keys, the client now needs to search this set for a matching key. On the other hand, considering that key management should remain simple, it is less straightforward to add support for constraints on access rights to the proposed architectures. [10] 2.3.1.1 Encryption-Based Access Control Encryption-based access control is attractive, in case there are lots of requests for the same information, as it is independent of the individual clients issuing these requests. For example, an information item can be encrypted once and the service can use the ciphertext for answering multiple requests. However, dealing with constraints on access rights and with granularity aware access rights becomes difficult with the uniform treatment of requests. Further challenges are presented in cases of covert access requirements and service-independent access rights. The main requirements for encryption based access control are: à » Any knowledge about the used encryption key or the required decryption key must not be revealed by the encrypted information. à » For decrypting encrypted information, each value of a constraint must require a separate key that should be accessible only under the given constraint/value combination and we want a scheme that supports hierarchical constraints to make key management simple. à » The decryption key for coarse-grained information should be derivable from the key for fine-grained information to further simplify key management. à » A single decryption key will be used to decrypt the same information offered by multiple services as implied by the service-independent access rights. Because of this, same information can be accessed by a service encrypting information offered by other services in a symmetric cryptosystem. This problem can be avoided by using asymmetric cryptosystem. [8] 2.3.1.2 Encryption-Based Access Control Techniques An access-control architecture will be an ideal one if the access rights are simple to manage; the system is constrainable and is aware of granularity. The architecture also has to be asymmetric, provide indistinguishability, and be personalizable in the case of proof-based access control. Some common encryption-based access control techniques are: Identity Based Encryption An identity-based encryption scheme is specified by four randomized algorithms: à » Setup: takes a security parameter k and returns system parameters and master-key. The system parameters include a description of a finite message space m and a description of a finite ciphertext space c. Intuitively, the system parameters will be publicly known, while the master-key will be known only to the Private Key Generator (PKG). à » Extract: takes as input system parameters, master-key, and an arbitrary ID à Ã‚ µ {0,1}*, and returns a private key d. ID is an arbitrary string which is then used as a public key, and d is the corresponding private decryption key. The Extract algorithm extracts a private key from the given public key. à » Encrypt: takes as input system parameters, ID, and M à Ã‚ µ m. It returns a ciphertext C à Ã‚ µ c. à » Decrypt: takes as input system parameters, C à Ã‚ µ c, and a private key d. It returns M à Ã‚ µ m. Standard consistency constraint must be satisfied by these algorithms, especially when d is the private key generated by algorithm Extract when it is given ID as the public key, then à ¢Ã‹â€ Ã¢â€š ¬ M à Ã‚ µ m: Decrypt (params, d) = M where C = Encrypt (params, ID, M) [11] Hierarchical Identity-Based Encryption One of the first practical IBE schemes was presented by Boneh and Franklin. Gentry and Silverberg [7] introduced Hierarchical Identity-Based Encryption scheme based on Boneh and Franklins work. In HIBE, private keys are given out by a root PKG to the sub PKGs, which then in turn distribute private keys to individuals (sub PKGs) in their domains. There are IDs associated with the root PKG and the public key of an individual corresponds to these IDs, any sub PKGs on the path from the root PKG to the individual, and the individual. Public parameters are required only from the root PKG for encrypting messages. It has the advantage of reducing the amount o

Diversity in Marriages Essay example -- Marriage Diversity Culture Rel

Diversity in Marriages Enormous diversity in nationalities and cultures throughout the world often can create obstacles to developing relationships between those who choose to be narrow-minded and prejudiced about ethnic groups outside their own. Conflicts that arise between Okeke and his son is an example of how affiliations with a different culture can disrupt a relationship between two people because of one's ignorance. Okeke believes that holding onto his culture's traditions is more important than keeping a close relationship with his son. Nnaemeka's father chooses to follow his tribe members' opinions and customs, rather than listen to his son and stand by his decision to marry Nene. Evidence of this is when Okeke commiserates with his fellow villagers to discuss the news of his son's disobedience. Commenting on how shocking Nnaemeka's behavior was, the villagers look down on Okeke's son. They think he is a bad son, even calling him "sick" and needing a doctor or herbalist to cure his disobedience. During the tribe members' discussion, Okeke does not stand up for his son or argue that perhaps the rest of them may be wrong about how serious the situation really is. He agrees that Nnaemeka cannot be an exception, he must follow the traditions no matter what. Which is why Okeke picks out a suitable girl he thinks his son should marry. By following the tribe's customs, he is able to preserve his family's history and heritage within the Ibo ...

Multi-agency working in a special school setting

There are about 15,000 kids ( aged under 18 ) with complex and profound acquisition troubles in England ( DCSF, 2008, School Census ) . The Department for Children, Schools and Families ( DCSF ) define composite and profound tilting troubles in the undermentioned footings: In add-on to really terrible larning troubles, the kids will hold other important troubles, such as physical disablements, centripetal damage or a terrible medical status. They require a high degree of big support, for their personal attention every bit good as for their acquisition demands. They are likely to necessitate centripetal stimulation and a course of study that is broken down into really little stairss. Some kids with profound and multiple acquisition troubles communicate by gesture, oculus pointing or symbols ; others communicate by utilizing really simple linguistic communication. For the intent of this survey, in line with the DCSF definition, pupils with complex and profound acquisition troubles are defined as those who portion two features: a profound cognitive damage or larning trouble ; and a complex interaction of troubles in more than one country of operation. Evidence suggests that locally coordinated proviso is being adopted nationally as a person-centred attack to the demands of kids with complex and profound acquisition troubles ( Hirst and Baldwin, 1994 ) . Despite this, the Further Education Funding Council for Learning Difficulties and/or Disabilities Committee ( FEFC, 1996 ) suggests there are still promotions to be made in be aftering between professional groups in order to advance educational patterned advance and societal inclusion ( Department of Health, 2001 ) . In relation to these findings this paper describes a research survey that aims to measure the effectiveness multi-agency working within a proviso for kids with complex and profound acquisition troubles.Multi-agency working: a argument over conceptualizationIn past research, the footings inter-agency and multi-agency have been used interchangeably, doing the construct of multi-agency working less clear. Some research workers, such as Carpenter ( 1995 ) have suggested th at the differentiation between the two is numerical, whereby ; ‘inter-agency ‘ refers to two professionals workings together, such as a instructor and instruction helper, whilst ‘multi-agency ‘ working refers to a state of affairs when there are more than two professional groups are involved, such as a primary school instructor, physical therapist and larning support instructor. Other authors suggest the difference between inter-agency and multi-agency working roots from issues of professional boundaries. For illustration, inter-agency working could be seen as â€Å" like you are traversing into another infinite†¦ † ( Pirrie et al. , 1998, p.213 ) where there are clear function definitions, whilst multi-agency working can be seen as advancing blurred boundaries between professional groups ( Wilson and Pirrie, 2000 ) . The DfES defines multi-agency working as: â€Å" †¦ different services and squads of professionals and other staff working together to supply the services that to the full meet the demands of kids, immature people and their parents or carers. † ( DfES, 2004, p.18 ) . It is believed that the term ‘multi-agency ‘ working screens a wide array of engagement, which could run from meetings between professionals from different bureaus to professionals working collaboratively over long periods of clip and across local communities ( Barnes, 2008 ) . For the intent of this survey, multi-agency working will affect different professionals working together on a regular footing over a considerable period of clip at The Meadows[ 1 ]to run into the demands of the students who attend.Multi-agency working to back up kids with complex and profound acquisition troubles: the demand to organize servicesOver clip, there has been a gradual displacement in the perceptual experience of persons with complex and profound acquisition troubles. Whereby, the medical theoretical account, with its concentration on personal shortage, is bit by bit germinating into a societal theoretical account which highlights the impact of environmental factors, societal factors and entree to educational chances on the lives of those with complex and profound acquisition troubles ( World Health Organization, 2001 ) . The increasing focal point on quality of life has highlighted the demand for professional bureaus to work collaboratively, if those with complex and profound acquisition troubles are to take richer lives ( Mencap, 2000 ; Barnes, 2008 ) . Besides, multi-agency working is being progressively seen as a agency of enabling improved entree to specialist support and resources, easing inclusion and ensuing in raised attainment ( Forbes, 2007 ) . Roaf ( 2002 ) suggests that multi-agency working enables kids with complex educational demands to make their full potency, stating: â€Å" Despite the complexness of their troubles, in school, instructors frequently find that when professionals work closely together, immature people reach their educational potency†¦ † ( p. 2 ) . Roaf ( 2002 ) besides highlights how, in contrast to multi-agency working, accessing services which are fragmented can frequently take to holds in accessing support and kids can at times get ‘lost in the system ‘ . Further research suggests that kids with complex and profound demands frequently experience co-occurring and overlapping troubles ( Maras et al. , 2002 ) which require a holistic appraisal of single demands through multi-disciplinary working. Multi-agency working has been identified as an effectual method of early designation and intercession to turn to complex demands ( Carpenter, 2000 ) and the demand to better multi-agency working to back up persons with complex and profound acquisition troubles was highlighted in the White Paper Valuing People ( Department of Health, DoH 2001 ) . Valuing Peoples advocates a person-centred attack to presenting â€Å" existent alteration in the lives of people with larning disablements † ( p. 5 ) by supplying â€Å" a individual, multi-agency mechanism for accomplishing this † ( p.5 ) . The paper suggests that in order to make the cardinal aim that â€Å" handicapped kids gain maximal life-chance benefits from educational chances, † ( p. 122 ) it is indispensable that wellness attention and societal attention should follow a multi-agency, coordinated attack to back up persons, every bit good as their parents or carers. The overarching purpose of coordinating service s through joint on the job patterns across wellness, societal attention and instruction is to supply a ‘seamless service ‘ ( DfES, 2003, 2004 ) to give kids the best possible start in life and to get the better of the troubles otherwise faced by households through fragmented services ( DoH, 2006 ) . The research base in this country proposes that multi-agency working is a cardinal facilitating factor for enabling kids with complex and profound acquisition troubles to derive improved life-chances and educational chances every bit good as supplying support for parents and carers. The following measure is to see how effectual multi-agency working can be achieved.Pulling on the grounds: factors which facilitate effectual multi-agency workingLiterature from an organizational psychological science perspective suggests that merely seting persons from professional groups together does non needfully take to effectual multi-agency or collaborative working ( Clark, 1993 ; Pirrie et al. , 1998 ) . Alternatively it is proposed that effectual multi-agency working is dependent on broad scope of factors, such as a blurring of professional boundaries which leads to the formation of â€Å" trust, tolerance and a willingness to portion duty † ( Nolan, 1995, p. 306 ) . Besides, success depen ds on the creative activity of a new manner of working that identifies common ends ( Pirrie et al. , 1998 ) , offers clear way at a strategic degree ( Atkinson et al. , 2005 ) and encourages a personal committedness from squad members ( Wilson and Pirrie, 2000 ) . Guidance from Every Child Matters: alteration for kids, provinces: To work successfully on a multi-agency footing you need to be clear about your ain function and aware of the functions of other professionals ; you need to be confident about your ain criterions and marks and respectful of those that apply to other services, actively seeking and esteeming the cognition and input others can do to presenting best results for kids and immature people. ( DfES, 2004, p. 18 ) A elaborate survey carried out with 139 members of multi-agency squads ( Local Government Area Research Report 26 ; Atkinson et al. , 2002 ) found that the primary accomplishments identified for successful multi-agency working across a scope of scenes include: a committedness from all involved ; understanding ain and other ‘s functions and duties ; holding common purposes and aims to work towards ; effectual communicating and information sharing ; strong leading ; holding support or resources needed ; and good working relationships and holding equal clip. Sloper ( 2004 ) found factors at an organizational degree which facilitate multi-agency working include: the planning, execution and on-going direction of multi-agency services ; clear and realistic purposes and aims that are easy understood and accepted ; clearly defined functions and duties with clear lines of answerability ; strong leading from a multi-agency guidance or direction group ; guaranting good systems of communicating and information sharing at all degrees ; and an agreed timetable and incremental attack for alteration. In drumhead, scenes where effectual multi-agency working has been established with a strong committedness from professionals involved has lead to better results for kids with complex and profound acquisition troubles ; nevertheless, the manner in which this is achieved is non simple. There are cardinal constituents identified within the research which are thought to ease multi-agency working but accomplishing effectual multi-agency working is non a straightforward procedure and may change from one puting to another. Based on a reappraisal of the literature around factors which affect multi-agency working, repeating subjects include: the apprehension of functions and duties ; effectual communicating and information sharing ; positive working relationships between persons from different bureaus ; and organizational factors such as how multi-agency working is managed.The Present StudyAt a whole-school staff meeting, The Meadows identified a desire to measure the effectivity of multi-age ncy working centered on students with complex and profound acquisition troubles. At this meeting the school staff reported that they would wish to measure current multi-agency working within the school to larn about how that might be improved for future service bringing. This was so discussed at a planning meeting affecting the research worker, the school SENCo ( Particular Educational Needs Coordinator ) and deputy caput instructor. The present survey is an explorative probe into multi-agency working within this specialist proviso for kids with complex and profound acquisition troubles. The context for this survey is The Meadows School which was established in September 2000 following the reorganization of proviso for kids with particular educational demands in Newtown[ 2 ]and is now presently the lone primary school within Newtown Local Authority catering for the demands of kids with complex and profound acquisition troubles or disablements. In September 2006, The Meadows moved into a edifice which was trade name new and purpose built. Along with instruction and schoolroom support staff, the school is supported by a multi-agency squad of: physical therapists, occupational healers, address and linguistic communication healers, a specializer instructor of the visually impaired, a specializer instructor of the hearing impaired, clinical psychologist, educational psychologist and medical staff, such as the school nurse and the adviser baby doctor. There are presently 124 kids go toing The Meadows, runing in age from 2 old ages to 11 old ages. All are described as holding complex and profound acquisition troubles, which include: terrible autism, complex medical conditions, physical and mobility troubles, every bit good as terrible developmental hold. There is a high proportion of students from an cultural minority background and a little figure of looked after kids who attend The Meadows. An OFSTED review in summer 2007 rated the school as being ‘Good ‘ overall and the undermentioned were rated as outstanding: Foundation Stage proviso, Personal Development and Well-being, Care, Guidance and Support and Curriculum Activities. OFTSED study that â€Å" There are first-class working relationships with other suppliers and bureaus and these have a positive consequence on the development of course of study activities. †PurposesThe purpose of this survey is to measure the effectivity of multi-agency working at The Meadows. This will be achieved by replying the undermentioned inquiries: 1. How is multi-agency working organised and structured at The Meadows? 2. How do multi-agency professionals ( MAPs ) at The Meadows perceive their ain and others ‘ functions? 3. How could multi-agency working at The Meadows be improved for future service bringing?MethodProcedureThis survey was conducted over a four month period from September to December, 2010. Table 1 nowadayss a timeline which illustrates the process ( informations aggregation methods are described in more item in the Measures subdivision of this survey ) .TimeActionRADIO theoretical account ( Timmins et al. , 2003 ) phaseSeptemberOn an informal visit to the scene, The Meadows staff mentioned a demand for research to be conducted within the school. They felt research could assist the school develop future service bringing. I suggested a treatment is held with school staff to place some possible research countries. Phase 1: Awareness of demand raised by the school.Early OctoberI met with school SENCo to discourse possible research countries. The rating of multi-agency working is agreed. I was asked to carry on the research. Phase 2: Invitation to move is given by the SENCo on behalf of the schoolMid OctoberI met with the SENCo, early old ages coordinator and deputy caput instructor to discourse research inquiries and purposes to be investigated. Phase 3, 4 & A ; 5: Identifying stakeholders and discoursing who the results will impact and holding the focal point of concern.End OctoberA research brief is emailed ( See Appendix One ) sketching the purposes of the research, research aims, attack, methodological analysis, timings and contact inside informations, including why information will be collected and how it would be used. Staff are asked to supply feedback on research brief. Phase 5 & A ; 6: Identifying stakeholders and discoursing the focal point of concern every bit good as determining a model for informations assemblage.Early NovemberI visited The Meadows to carry on a semi-structured interview with the early old ages coordinator, deputy caput instructor and caput instructor to larn about the school and how multi-agency on the job maps. Phase 7: Gathering Information stage 1.Mid NovemberI conducted observations over two forenoons ( about seven hours ) to roll up informations. The intent was to depicting four things: the accomplishments and cognition staff were using in their function, working relationships between multi-agency staff, how multi-agency working was structured or organised and what sort of support was offered by MAPs. Phase 7: Gathering Information stage 1.End NovemberI explored student files for information. The intent was to measure the accomplishments and cognition MAPs were using in their function and how multi-agency working was structured. Phase 7: Gathering Information stage 1.DecemberData was collected through the usage of questionnaires. Phase 7: Gathering Information stage 2.MeasuresThe overarching purpose was to measure multi-agency working at The Meadows with an involvement in placing ways of developing future support for kids with complex and profound acquisition troubles at the school. A multi-method attack was used affecting two stages. Phase one, was chiefly analytic-inductive ( Robson, 2002 ) , using an interpretative attack as the footing for question, whereby, semi-structured interviews were conducted, pupil files were explored and observations were used to bring forth rich, qualitative information. Phase two consisted of structured questionnaires used to look into subjects originating from the interview responses and research relationships between variables to bring forth quantitative informations. Semi-structured interviews I visited The Meadows to carry on a semi-structured interview with the early old ages coordinator, deputy caput instructor and caput instructor to larn about the school and how it operates as a multi-agency squad. A semi-structured attack with open-ended interview inquiries was used, as suggested by Cohen and Manion ( 1989 ) to let the research worker to be flexible throughout the oppugning procedure, so that a free-flow of information could be achieved. An interview agenda of inquiries was created based on subjects which had emerged from a reappraisal of the literature. A list of possible inquiries was written ( see Appendix Two ) to motivate the interviewer sing the cardinal points to cover and subjects to turn to. As recommended by Robson ( 2002 ) there was flexibleness over the sequencing of inquiries, their exact diction and the sum of clip and attending given to different subjects depending on the response of the participant. The interviews were tape recorded which Robson ( 2002 ) suggests is good pattern to supply comprehensive informations for ulterior analysis. This method besides allowed me to concentrate on edifice resonance which is an built-in portion of a successful interview procedure ( Dexter, 1970 ) . At the start of each interview I described the interview procedure, about how long it should last, and the general topics to be covered. I asked the interviewee ‘s permission to enter replies and reassured confidentiality. The interviewees were asked if they had any inquiries before get downing the interview and once more at the terminal. After the interviews were complete, through informal treatment, participants were asked to reflect on the interview procedure. From feedback, it was found that respondents felt they had been able to reply inquiries in their ain clip and in their ain manner. Participants said they felt relaxed and liked my interview manner, as it was informal and â€Å" set them at easiness. † Observations I conducted observations over two forenoons and observed 15 members of staff working across four categories including, instructors, larning support practicians, physical therapists and address and linguistic communication healers. Before get downing observations, I introduced herself by mentioning to the information outlined in the research brief and inquiring for each participant ‘s consent to be portion of the research procedure. The observation technique involved analyzing a scope of grownups working with kids and depicting four things: the accomplishments and cognition staff were using in their function, working relationships between multi-agency staff, how multi-agency working was structured or organised and what sort of support was offered by MAPs. This was recorded on an observation record sheet ( see Appendix Three for sample record sheet ) . As proposed by Robson ( 2002 ) , information was recorded during observations and extra information was added shortly after each observation period, including interpretative thoughts and subjective feelings. Questionnaires The purpose was to try as broad a scope of bureaus as possible and cod informations through the usage of questionnaires from a scope of professionals from different bureaus who support students at The Meadows. An explanatory missive, along with a structured questionnaire ( See Appendix Three ) were sent to each member of staff at The Meadows through the usage of the school ‘s internal postal system and through electronic mail besides. The questionnaire was structured into six subdivisions. These subdivisions were based on subjects originating from the reappraisal of literature, interviews and observations conducted antecedently. The six subdivisions were as follows: background information, which explored the respondents ‘ function and clip worked at The Meadows ; communicating between MAPs including: teaching staff ; physical therapists ; occupational healers ; address and linguistic communication healers ; a specializer instructor of the visually impaired ; a specializer instructor of the hearing impaired ; clinical psychologist ; and educational psychologist. apprehension of ain and other multi-agency professional ‘s functions at The Meadows ; positions on administration and construction of multi-agency working at The Meadows as these facilitated or inhibited each respondent ‘s ain work and overall multi-agency working within the school ; environmental factors which may impact multi-agency working ; and other Factors act uponing multi-agency working. The inquiries were a mixture of open-ended inquiries which had no predetermined response options and needed respondents to enter their replies in sentences and scaling inquiries which required respondents to click a corresponding response on a five-point ordinal graduated table. A pilot questionnaire was administered to four participants. Through informal inquiring, respondents gave feedback which was incorporated into the concluding questionnaire design. 20 questionnaires were returned ( N=20 ) from a scope of bureaus, including: larning support helpers ( N=3 ) ; educational psychologist ( N=1 ) ; occupational healer ( N=1 ) ; address and linguistic communication healers ( N=2 ) ; physical therapist ( N=1 ) ; instructors ( N=6 ) ; librarian ( N=1 ) ; and senior Management staff ( N=5 ) .ConsequencesThe consequences will be reported in relation to the research aims below: 1. How is multi-agency working organised and structured at The Meadows? 2. How do MAPs at The Meadows perceive their ain and others ‘ functions? 3. How could multi-agency working at The Meadows be improved for future service bringing?How is multi-agency working organised/structured at The Meadows?In order to derive insight into how The Meadows operates as a multi-agency squad, observations across the school were conducted, pupil files held at Newtown Inclusion Support were explored and information was gathered through interviews with the school ‘s early old ages coordinator, deputy caput instructor and caput instructor. Contented analysis of the informations from observations and interviews ( See Appendix Four for process ) suggests that The Meadows operates as an operational multi-agency bringing squad. Diagrammatic representation of this type of attack is provided in Figure 1.1. Figure 1.1 Operational squad bringing theoretical account During the interviews participants ( caput teacher, early old ages coordinator and deputy caput instructor ) were asked to name all the bureaus that on a regular basis work at The Meadows and depict how services are coordinated and delivered to back up students at the school. From their responses, it was possible to build a figure to demo the bureaus and their connection ( See Figure 1.2 ) . When asked, interviewees described multi-agency working at The Meadows as â€Å" a scope of experts who work in close propinquity and work together to present support to students, † ( head teacher ) with the overall purpose being, to accomplish â€Å" a bipartisan exchange of cognition, thoughts and accomplishments † ( head teacher ) between all those involved ( as indicated in Figure 1.2 ) .The Meadows Multi-agency squad bringing theoretical accountFigure 1.2 The Meadows ‘s multi-agency squad bringing theoretical account. Health professionals: physical therapist, occupational healer, address and linguistic communication healers, clinical psychologist, pediatric adviser, Educational Psychologist. Education professionals: Educational Psychologist, instructors, larning support practicians, senior direction, co-ordinators. Other services: Parents, voluntaries, meal-time supervisors, site staff, disposal staff, drivers, librarian Social services: Social workers. The purpose of the operational bringing squad was reported to be for professionals from different bureaus to work together on a daily footing and to organize a cohesive multi-agency squad that delivers a person-centered service straight to students who attend The Meadows. By utilizing this attack senior direction at The Meadows hope to supply a â€Å" seamless service for parents † which offers a broad comprehensiveness of expertness, accomplishments and experience and hope this attack encourages â€Å" joined up believing † between bureaus, â€Å" an efficient free flow of information † and would promote â€Å" more creativeness. † Through questionnaires, MAPs who work at The Meadows were asked to rate their cognition and apprehension of assorted structural and organizational elements of multi-agency working at The Meadows such as the staffing construction and the organisation of the course of study. Respondents were asked to rate the extent to which they were involved in determining these elements and how they impacted on their engagement in multi-agency working. Chart 1 below represents the mean questionnaire response from staff ( larger sized chart available in Appendix Five ) . The responses were divided into three groups: senior direction, learning staff ( including larning support practicians ) and professionals who are employed by external bureaus such as address and linguistic communication healers, occupational healers, physical therapists and psychologists. This was done to see whether there were differences between groups. Although evaluations across all countries were high for all groups, it was found that senior direction rated their cognition of the construction of The Meadows and engagement in determining service bringing as highest across most classs. Teaching staff rated 2nd highest across the same countries and external bureaus rated lowest across these countries. This suggests that external bureaus perceive they have the lowest apprehension of The Meadows ‘s course of study, the least chances for joint planning and preparation bringing and the least input into future service bringing. Qualitative responses on the questionnaires from professionals employed by external bureaus, suggest that clip restraints are the chief ground for the deficiency of engagement in joint planning and preparation. Additionally, during interviews some staff reported that some MAPs do non hold a clear apprehension of The Meadows ‘s thematic course of study, which leads to them to propose extra marks which are ill-fitting with the curriculum marks already in topographic point. It was felt this frequently puts increasing demands on learning staff who are responsible for implementing marks suggested by external bureaus.How make MAPs at The Meadows perceive their ain and other ‘s functions?Through questionnaires MAPs were asked to name the cardinal accomplishments and cognition they considered that they implemented in their function at The Meadows. This information was triangulated with informations from observations and single student files. Figure 2 illustrates the cardinal accomplishments and cognition used by multi-agency staff at The Meadows in their daily working. Figure 2. diagrammatic representation of cardinal accomplishments and cognitionCommon Skills & A ; Knowledge– specializer cognition ;– assessing pupil advancement ;– communication with other professionals & A ; parents ; and– experience.Address and Language Therapists:– cognition of communicating development and swallowing troubles ; and – mark linguistic communication and option signifiers of communicating.Physical therapists:– expertness in all right and gross motor development ; and – placement and seating options.Teaching Staff( including larningsupport practicians ) :– communication with parents & A ; a broad scope of professionals ; – experience of working with kids with a broad scope of demand ; and – program, learn & amp ; assess student advancement.Educational Psychologist:– advice on behavior direction rules ; -advice on accessing the course of study ; and – support student ‘s academic development. The cardinal circle in Figure 2. entitled ‘Common Skills and Knowledge ‘ , identifies a set of common accomplishments that all MAPs employed in their work at The Meadows. The qualitative responses from questionnaires suggested that some MAPs felt that there was some â€Å" function convergence † and â€Å" deficiency of lucidity † sing the cardinal duties of some professionals they worked with, which at times lead to repeat in the work carried out by different persons, peculiarly when measuring student advancement. This will be explored further in the Discussion subdivision of this paper. The following measure was to research how staff at The Meadows perceived their ain functions. Through questionnaires staff were asked to rate statements associating to their function and the functions of other MAPs. Consequences are presented in Chart 2 ( larger sized chart available in Appendix Five ) . The bulk of MAPs felt that they had a really good apprehension of their ain function and others ‘ functions. All staff members viewed themselves chiefly as a member of The Meadows ‘s staff squad. Those who are employed by an external bureau viewed themselves as chiefly members of The Meadows staff squad and besides view themselves as portion of an external bureau. Qualitative responses from this group suggest that some persons found that belonging to two administrations can be â€Å" hard to pull off at times, † can sometimes be â€Å" frustrating † and can at times â€Å" lead to conflict. † Overall, respondents felt that professional boundaries were non hard to traverse and they perceived that professional boundaries were somewhat blurred. Through questionnaires, staff were asked to rate the grade to which they understood the functions of other professionals who worked at The Meadows and how often they had contact with them. The consequences are presented in Chart 3 ( larger sized chart available in Appendix Five ) . The consequences show that there are fluctuations in the degree of apprehension of some professional functions and in the degree of contact with some professional groups. From the mean overall responses it is suggested that most respondents felt they had the clearest apprehension of the functions of: teaching staff, larning support practicians, address and linguistic communication healers, the instructor of the visually impaired, nursery nurses, the wellness attention squad and disposal staff. These groups were besides rated as holding the highest degree of contact, which suggests that high contact can take to better apprehension of others ‘ functions. There was least contact with the clinical psychologist, the instructor of the hearing impaired, societal workers and the educational psychologist. Qualitative responses from the questionnaire suggested that clip limitations affect contact with some professional groups, particularly those with merely one member such as the clinical psychologist, the instructor of the hearing impaired, societal workers and the educational psychologist, which adversely impacted other workers ‘ apprehension of the function.How could multi-agency working at The Meadows be improved for future service bringing?In general, respondents believed that multi-agency working at The Meadows was effectual and well-organised. However, qualitative responses suggested some countries for possible betterment were: clip restraints, deficiency of communicating and function ambiguity. Through qualitative responses on questionnaires it was suggested that communicating between MAPs was an country which could be addressed to better future service bringing at The Meadows. Seven cardinal elements to better communicating were identified, these were: systems in topographic point to let confidential exchange of information between bureaus for illustration, through secure web waiters ; chances for multi-agency meetings at regular intervals and available on a ‘as needed ‘ footing ; chances to run into as a whole staff with all MAPs who work at The Meadows to construct better working relationships ; a dependable point of contact to mention to for information and counsel when MAPs are non in school or non readily available ; a shared country on the school ‘s intranet where MAPs can portion information, programmes and how to implement recommendations ; guarantee disposal staff have a clear apprehension of the duties of MAPs who visit the school and are notified of when they are due to see ; and guaranting communicating with parents presents a â€Å" clear and cohesive image, † ( deputy caput instructor ) particularly when many professional bureaus are involved and there is possible for conflicting advice. Suggestions for bettering the apprehension of other multi-agency professionals ‘ functions were contributed as a manner of bettering future service bringing at The Meadows. Five perceived cardinal elements to better apprehension were identified. These were: a profile of each multi-agency professional who operates at The Meadows that other school staff can mention to, for information about their functions and duties ; more contact with MAPs. Classroom-based staff suggested it would be helpful if MAPs spent more clip in category ( if possible ) and had more chances to work straight with learning staff, kids and parents ; more chances created for joint planning between MAPs and classroom-based staff. more staff meetings to specify functions and construct professional relationships ; and more multi-agency engagement in the school ‘s â€Å" visioning yearss † where future service bringing is discussed.Reliability, cogency and generalisabilityIt is of import to observe some of the restrictions of this peculiar survey. One such restriction is that the findings are specific to one peculiar scene and limited to the minute in clip the survey was conducted. It can non be assumed that consequences can be generalised to other instances and fortunes. The attack used in this survey does hold the potency to give conceptually rich, psychological histories of complex phenomena ( Turner, 1992 ) .The design of this survey was developed based on treatments with school staff and the research worker ‘s ain contemplations, doing it likely that prejudices exist which limit the dependability and cogency ( define and be specific ) of findings. For illustration, the steps used and the research design were determined by the research worker ‘s perceptual experiences of what the school would happen good and of import. Another possible restriction is that trying was across a figure of bureaus in this survey, nevertheless, there are other bureaus which were non involved that would hold been utile to include, the most noteworthy being societal workers, farther it would hold been helpful to research parents ‘ positions. The choice of bureaus and interviewees may hold led to the consequences being skewed. In footings of informations aggregation steps used, there are a figure of strengths and restrictions to each which are summarised below. Semi-structured Interviews: This attack allows some grade of flexibleness and provides a wealth of verbal and non-verbal rich and enlightening information ( Robson, 2002 ) . However, this attack lacks standardisation and can raise concerns over dependability ( Robson, 2002 ) . Besides, the flexibleness of this attack increases the likeliness of interviewer prejudice which can impact the cogency and dependability of responses. Focused Observations: The observation informations provided rich, qualitative information embedded within the context of the scene ( Robson, 2002 ) which added to the face cogency and dependability of the informations collected. However, experimental informations are capable to reading by the perceiver and trust on what the perceiver chooses to go to to. Besides, a deficiency of multiple perceivers can impact the dependability of reported informations. Questionnaires: This attack allowed a scope of persons to be involved in the research which may non hold been possible otherwise, due to clip restraints. Questionnaire response rate may hold been increased if the questionnaire could hold been shortened or conducted at a more convenient clip. Since content analysis was carried out by one research worker this may besides hold led to researcher prejudice. In footings of overall dependability and cogency of this survey, it is of import to observe that by utilizing a multi-method attack and triangulating the findings from several methods of informations aggregation ; it is possible to better dependability and cogency ( Robson, 2002 ) .Discussion and decisionsThe intent of this survey was to measure the effectivity of multi-agency working within a proviso for kids with complex and profound acquisition troubles by replying the undermentioned inquiries: 1. How is multi-agency working organised and structured at The Meadows? 2. How do MAPs at The Meadows perceive their ain and others ‘ functions? 3. How could multi-agency working at The Meadows be improved for future service bringing? When turn toing the first inquiry, it was noted that The Meadows maps as an operational multi-agency bringing squad. This attack relies to a great extent on effectual communicating and a high degree of committedness from all bureaus involved ( Atkinson et al. , 2002 ) . It relies on the effectual sharing of information and resources every bit good as the demand to happen clip to construct good working relationships between bureaus ( Atkinson et al. , 2002 ; Roaf and Lloyd, 1995 ) . When working within this theoretical account of service bringing, it is extremely of import to construct cognition and apprehension of each other ‘s functions, duties and precedences in order to advance cooperation between bureaus ( Atkinson et al. , 2002 ; Easen, 1998 ; McConkey, 2001 ) . When compared to staff who were for good based at The Meadows, such as learning staff and senior direction at the school, bureaus which are employed by external administrations, had the least apprehension of The Meadows ‘s course of study and rated their engagement in joint planning and staff preparation as lowest. Qualitative informations supported the position that that these countries were a possible failing in multi-agency working at The Meadows and that by turn toing the restrictions in these countries, future service bringing could be improved. In peculiar, it was suggested that MAPs should hold a clear apprehension of the alone course of study The Meadows provides for each single student. Pupils work on a â€Å" thematic course of study based on chance † ( head instructor ) , which includes elements of the National Curriculum and besides is separately tailored to supply chances to develop accomplishments and experiences in countries such as personal and societal instruction, communicating, independency and drama relevant to each kid. Rushmer and Pallis ( 2002 ) suggest that for an administration to accomplish its ends and aims, the work of single squad members must be linked into a consistent form of activities and relationships. The consequences from this survey suggest there is a set of common accomplishments that all MAPs employed in their work at The Meadows, viz. : specializer cognition, measuring student advancement, pass oning with other professionals every bit good as parents and pulling upon old experience. In relation to these findings, other research suggests that blurred professional boundaries and deficiency of lucidity around functions and duties can constitue a barrier to integrated working ( Cameron and Lart, 2003 ) . In contrast, other research has shown that joint-working relies upon the meeting of the accomplishment, experience and cognition of each professional to bring forth positive results that merely working together can accomplish ( Rushmer and Pallis, 2002 ) . When look intoing how multi-agency working at The Meadows could be improved for future service bringing, staff felt that betterments could be made to the effectivity of communicating between professional groups and where there is function ambiguity originating from integrated working ( Percy-Smith, 2005 ; Stewart, Petch, & A ; Curtice, 2003 ) . For case, there is ambiguity around the different functions and duties of professional bureaus who work at the school. Expand on this†¦ The consequences of this survey are supported by findings from old research on multi-agency working which suggest that clip is a cardinal hinderance to effectual multi-agency working ( Gill, 1989 ; Hudson, 2003 ; Lloyd-Bennett & A ; Melvin, 2002 ; Stead et al. , 2004 ; Walker, 2003 ) . This survey indicates that The Meadows could develop communicating and apprehension. This could be encouraged through increased articulation working and chances for contact through meetings and preparation, better cognition of each other ‘s functions would besides assist persons work together efficaciously. Encouragingly, professionals at The Meadows are by and large happening joint working a good and positive experience and are acute for it to develop. Through a mixed-method attack this survey captures the sentiments and contemplations of a group of professionals who have developed successful coaction to back up kids with complex and profound acquisition troubles who attend The Meadows and has explored ways in which this success can be built upon for future pattern.Word Count: 5,798MentionsAnning, 2001 Atkinson et al. , 2002 Bank, 1992 Barnes, 2008 Barnes, 2008 Brown and White ( 2006 ) Cameron and Lart, 2003 Cameron and Lart, 2003 ) . Carpenter ( 1995 ) , Carpenter, 2000 Clark, 1993 ; Pirrie et al. , 1998 Cochrane, 2000 ; DCSF, 2008, School Census Department of Health, 2001 Dexter ( 1970 ) DfES, 2003, 2004 DfES, 2004 DoH, 2006 ) . Easen, 1998 FEFC, 1996 Forbes, 2007 Gerwirtz, 2002 Gill, 1989 ; Hudson, 2003 ; Hirst and Baldwin, 1994 Kimberlee, 2001 LGA Research Report 26 ; Atkinson, Wilkin, Stott, Doherty, & A ; Kinder, 2002 Lloyd-Bennett & A ; Melvin, 2002 ; Maras et al. , 2002 McConkey, 2001 Mencap, 2000 ; Nolan, 1995 Percy-Smith, 2005 ; Pirrie et al. , 1998 Roaf ( 2002 Roaf and Lloyd, 1995 Robson, C. ( 2002 ) Real World Research: A Resource for Social Scientists and Practitioner-Researchers. 2nd erectile dysfunction. Oxford: Blackwell. Rushmer and Pallis ( 2002 ) Rushmer and Pallis ( 2002 ) Sloper ( 2004 Stead et al. , 2004 ; Stewart, Petch, & A ; Curtice, 2003 ) . Turner, 1992 Walker, 2003 Wilson and Pirrie, 2000 Wilson and Pirrie, 2000 World Health Organization, 2001

Foundation Degree (FdSc) in Food Manufacturing Management Essay

Introduction Audit objectives Why Audit? The intentions of this Audit are as follows: Using a recognised GMP standard (UNIDO/BRC) assess and quantify the effectiveness of the current quality system that is in place. Recommend, upon review, strategies for improvement that can be made to meet, and potentially exceed, the minimum retail requirements. * Upon completion, allow the business to set attainable goals and objectives in order to drive the business forward. This is in an efficiency, production and legal capacity. Company Profile Shetland SeaFish (Hull) limited started trading in 1922 as a specialist manufacturer of frozen fish products. The company employs 50-60 staff on site and has a total of 80-100 employees working throughout the group. The group has three factories. The other two are involved in primary processing and fish farming in the Shetland isles. The company supplies supermarkets, discounters, fish wholesalers, frozen food distributors and food service companies. The main market is the UK but the company also has a small export trade. Shetland SeaFish (Hull) limited has implemented a tightly controlled system of operational procedures including a fully documented HACCP system and quality manual. Business Environment The food industry is one under pressure. The fishing industry in particular is an area with its own particular problems which have a direct impact on this company as fish is its primary raw material. Over the past few years, environmental concern over diminishing fish stocks has contributed to increased governmental interdiction to manage fishing quotas. Although this may be the case for the national fishing industry, the world wide catch (up until recently) has been on a steady rise. This company sources raw material from worldwide locals (Particularly the Asiatic areas such as China and Scandinavian Seas) so the impact has been minimal. The way in which the company sources fish may change in the future, as internet auctions are on the increase, and this makes the market more of a volatile entity as prices can fluctuate as events affect fishing procurement. The other main problem with the food industry is the strength of the major multiples over the manufacturers. The major supermarkets to whom most food manufacturers supply, aim to maintain a constant gross profit margin which is typically quite large. To reflect this, the multiples like to pass down on-costs to the suppliers. Offers such as ‘buy one, get one free’ are fuelled by the manufacturer, and come straight from their bottom line. By running a â€Å"BOGOF† offer, it is affectively selling the product at half the unit price for the duration of the offer. One supermarket that this company has dealt with also deducts (on their own accord) a set price to go towards advertising and marketing. For example, a deduction of à ¯Ã‚ ¿Ã‚ ½10,000 might be deducted from an invoice to them for product, with the reasoning being that even if that amount is not being used to directly promote that particular product, just by advertising the stores in general, the increased amount of customers flowing through the store, should they say, increase sales to the company’s product. This deduction from the invoice is imposed by the supermarket, and because you do not know how often they are going to do this, it makes costing for business more difficult. Combine this with the fact that at every price review by the supermarket buyer’s, they demand higher quality products, for a reduction in unit price, depresses margins lower than ever. The margin depression brings with it a set of problems. Because a company has to reduce its costs to meet the price points per units, so as to maintain the business with the supermarket, it makes it for a business to remain as profitable as what it would like to be. A smaller margin means that a company does not have the same amount of free capital available to it to make necessary re-investments which would help to procure more sales and increase throughput. In section four of the overview, a specific study of this is discussed in relation to an OEE study on one of the factories lines. There are several technological resolutions available which if purchased would go a long way to increase productivity. Unfortunately there are several financial constraints which place barriers to the procurement of these technological improvements. A brief discussion of ‘Chicken and Egg’ barriers is briefly explained in section four of the overview. The problem lies in the fact that if a new piece of equipment is needed to continue, or to improve production, then the company does not have enough liquid capital available to be able to purchase it outright. This means that the company would have to investigate borrowing facilities. The problem with this is that the company would like to have a secured amount of business from one of, or a combination of customers, in order to take on the risk of borrowing large amounts of money. The reason for this is that a company has to account for a payback period into their costing to cover borrowing and interest as well as machine depreciation. With shortened product placement tenures, the guarantee of continued business for this period is not there, inhibiting the business from wanting to take a risk of this magnitude. Eventually a company has to ‘bite the bullet’ and take a risk in order to increase turnover and throughput. Smaller margins also mean that there may not be enough of an increase in net profits to cover staff requirements. Each year there is a general staff appraisal to discuss the terms of wages and conditions. If the company is reduced in its profit capacity, then this trend is often relayed onto the workforce. f the company has diminished available finances then money is not possible to give staffs the annual increase in wages or to be able to invest in communal facilities. This has a knock on effect on staff morale and motivation if the annual increase is postponed or if it has to be cancelled. It manifests itself in some individuals in a revenge motivation mentality. As the individuals feel aggrieved because the company cannon comply with what the workers feel is a basic right, then they may wish to ‘get back’ at the company. At best this may just be by reducing their amount and quality of work, therefore their loyalty is affected. At worst, it could be resignation, dissention or even some form of industrial sabotage. Without the increase in wages rates it also lessens the difference between that and what the government sets as the national minimum wage. This poses a problem in relation to retaining, and gaining new employees. At one point, working in a factory used to attract a premium, but over time that has decreased to the point to where wage levels between shop workers and factory workers are almost the same. With the current work ethos among new employees (particularly young people) the dilemma of where would ‘I’ like to work arises. Either a (usually) smelly, shift work system, hard work inducing factory, or a shop, where they can go straight out from without having to go home for a shower and change, is less hard work and usually has a set nine until five work pattern. For the same, or similar, wage, most people appear to want to work in a shop. This displays a distinct shift from employment trends from primary or secondary employment to a majority of employment in the tertiary, or services, sector. If a company has a high turn-over of staff, then generally the quality of staffs decreases. This may then affect production output and efficiencies. One way that this can be combated is though an increase in staff training. This not only acts to both increase staff quality, but it also helps to improve the individuals’ job satisfaction. This is through increased competency, increased knowledge (i.e. making an individual more multi-skilled) and the feeling that they are not in a ‘dead-end’ job. In the industry sector to which this company falls, there is an increased amount of governmental grants available for staff training programmes. Within this factory, all of the employees of first tier level have all been through NVQ level 2 training in Food hygiene and handling. Production supervisors have received additional training to NVQ level three in this area. There is also a range of other courses that are being studied that are part funded, or reimbursed by, governmental policies. It is clear that there are some relatively easy ways to increase the efficiency and line throughputs of production. Unfortunately limiting factors come into play to inhibit potential growth as long as margins are squeezed smaller and smaller. This is a self perpetuating cycle. If allowed to make a little bit more profit then this can be channelled back into the business to increase production efficiency and overall turnover making the business more successful. Legal Issues There is a complex mine field of legislation that comes into play when dealing with a food unit operation. There is a whole plethora of acts and regulations which help to control the food industry which helps to protect the consumer from dubious practices and ensure that the final product that is consumed is of the expected substance, nature and quality demanded. There are several levels of legislation: * Acts, which are statutes passed down by parliament. * Regulations – which are made under specific acts * E.C. directives – which are passed down from the E.E.C. The Food safety enforcement officers have various enforcement powers which enable them to ensure that all of the legislation is correctly adhered to. These can be servicing notices, sampling and seizing foodstuffs, and also to instigate criminal proceedings if an offence is made. The main legislation affecting this business are to be listed as following; Food Safety Act, 1990 This act is in relation to the sale of food for human consumption and is applicable to all food premises. This act makes it an offence to: * Render food injurious to health * Sale or possession of food injurious to health, or that is unfit for, or is contaminated. * Sale of food that is not of the correct nature, substance and quality demanded by the consumer. * Give any false or misleading descriptions. The Food Premises (Registration) Regulations, 1991 (SI No. 2825) amended 1997 This regulation requires all food premises to register with the local, or port authority, in the area that they are situated. Every registration authority must keep a register, which can be accessed by the public for inspection. Food Safety (General Food Hygiene) Regulation, 1995 (SI. No. 1763) This act provides general requirements for all food handlers and premises (with specific requirements for preparation areas, moveable and temp. premises, transport, equipment and the like) to be kept clean, facilitate cleaning, and prevent the accumulation of dirt. It also specifies a requirement for all food premises to identify all steps in the business that is critical to food safety, and to minimise these risks. The Food Safety (Temperature Controls) Regulations, 1995 (SI. No. 2200) This determines any matter involving a risk to food safety, in relation to the nature of the food, manner in which it is handled and packed, and processes and conditions under which it has been displayed or stored. No person should keep food that is likely to support the growth of pathogenic bacteria or the accumulation of their toxins. Products of Animal Origin (Import and Export) Regulations, 1996 These regulations govern the origins of animal foodstuffs from countries outside the EEC. Since 1993, foodstuffs imported from other members of the EEC are not liable for inspection due to the open border policy, but they are still subject to the Food Safety Act 1990. Food Labelling Regulations 1996 (SI. No. 1499) These require most foodstuffs that are to be sold for human consumption be labelled with: * The name of the food. * List of ingredients (Quantifying ingredients mentioned in the name of the food). * Best before dates, which indicate minimum durability or perish ability of the food in relation to microbial or product degradation beyond being fit for human consumption. * Any specific storage conditions required. * Name and address of the manufacturer The Quick-Frozen Foodstuffs Regulations, 1990 (SI. No. 2615) amended 1994 Food that has undergone quick-freezing (i.e. whereby the zone of maximum crystallization as rapidly as possible) should be labelled as such. It must be suitably packaged so as to protect it from microbial and other contamination and also to protect from de-hydration. Must be labelled with: * BBE * Storage requirements including temps. * Batch reference * A clear message not to refreeze after defrosting. There are also some specific legislation relating to food poisoning: Public Health (Control of Disease) Act 1994 The Public Health (Infectious Diseases) Regulations, 1988 (SI. No. 1546) National Health Service (Amendment) Act 1986 The National Health Service (Food Premises) Regulations, 1987 (SI. No. 18) The Public Health Laboratory Service (PHLS) These pieces of legislation relate to reports of incidences of food poisoning and food borne illness. It empowers officers to investigate food premises on the basis of risk to increased infection, and to identify the source of food poisoning illnesses. Separate to food related issues there are also a number of other pieces of legislation that apply to most businesses. These are: Health & Safety The Health and Safety at Work Act 1974 The Control of Substances Hazardous to Health Regulations, 1994 (SI. No. 3246) The Reporting of Injuries, Diseases and Dangerous Occurrences Regulation, 1985 (SI. No. 2023) The Electricity at Work Regulations, 1989 (SI. No. 635) The Management of Health and Safety at Work Regulations, 1992 (SI. No. 2051) The Workplace (Health, Safety and Welfare) Regulations, 1992 (SI. No. 3004) The Personal Protective Equipment at Work Regulations, 1992 (SI. No. 2966) The Manual Handling Operations Regulations, 1992 (SI. No. 2793) All of these laws are in relation to keeping equipment in good order; provide all PPE, also in good order, and to report all accidents and medical problems caused by/ at work. There are some new environmental legislation in relation to waste water and effluent, and also the climate change levy. There are also waste land fill laws (After B.S.E. and Foot and Mouth no food wastes can be further processed into animal feeds) It is clear that there are a lot of laws that help to keep the consumer, and employees safe, both in relation to food safety and personal safety. In order to comply with all of these laws, and check with the company’s compliance to these, the office of fair trading and the environmental health office audit the factory on a regular basis. Section 2 Key Findings Summations on Audit checklists Section by section review HACCP System: The company has a very detailed and comprehensive HACCP system following the Codex principles and based on risk assessment for each product type. The latest revision is June 2002. The HACCP documentation includes Introduction (Intro, team, product description, intended use, flow diagram, and verification of flow, controls and hazards), Process flow (product, production process), Hazards, Hazard analysis and Hygiene controls. The site technical manager who is qualified in advance food hygiene leads the HACCP team. The other HACCP team members include the production manager, financial director, business consultant, Q.A. supervisor and H&S officer. They have all received training in HACCP principles. Eight CCP’s have been identified and clearly marked around the site. These include; R.M. intake, band saw room, product storage, packaging storage, coatings, sauce making, sauce buggies, sauce deposition and metal detection. Shetland SeaFish (in conjunction with Cravenglow consultant limited) has produced a handbook for employees entitled â€Å"Understanding HACCP and the British Retail Consortium Quality Award†. This book was issued to all staff before going through their first successful BRC audit, and is issued to new staff during induction. The Handbook explains; HACCP terms and working practices, details the eight CCP’s, How to control potential Hazards, How HACCP works, Different types of Hazard, other important HACCP information and an introduction to the BRC standard Quality Management System: The site operations/quality manual has been fully implemented and indexed in the latest revision (Revision 4 October 2002) to the BRC technical standard version three. Policies and procedures referenced to the HACCP manual and currently cover all of the identified critical controls. Each working area has its own handbook that includes some or all of the following: Factory cleaning procedures Technical terms Key staff Safe working practices Factory procedures QA procedures applicable to the area. A specifications file maintained by the company has a programme of internal audits that cover the entire quality system twice per year. The handling of complaints is the responsibility of the Technical manager. Complaints are referenced individually, by customer, and complaint type. Corrective actions arising from complaints are recorded. An approved supplier list is in operation, deliveries assessed at intake, and supplier performance reviewed quarterly. One of the key findings of this audit has been that although the supplier audit plans clearly defined and laid out, it has not been adhered to. This needs rectifying by the time of the next audit. Factory Environmental Standards: The factory is well located just off the main route into Hull, and has a logical process flow. The buildings are well constructed. Walls panelled with false ceiling and smooth concrete floors. Equipment is industry standard and is be well maintained. There is a planned maintenance system administered by a well-resourced engineering department. Staff changing facilities are provided by separate storage of work wear and personnel wear with staff locker rooms situated well away from production. Work clothing situated in changing facilities on the entrance to the production facility. A dedicated night hygiene crew operate a comprehensive cleaning programme, verified using bioluminescence ATP swabs. This form of assessment is under utilised. By conducting more swabs, a more indicative trend analysis can be compiled. This system could also be extended to incorporate hand swabbing, so as to gauge the effectiveness of the staffs hand washing. A comprehensive pest control contract is in place with â€Å"Rentokil† and no infestation reported. The only addition to this regime would be to introduce catch tray analysis. This is not done at present, although Rentokil have been asked to provide a quote for the service. The reason that catch tray analysis is so important is that various indicator species of insect may help to identify a particular problem within the factory. Another option is that the accountant is a qualified entomologist. The suggestion has been made that they complete the catch tray analysis on behalf of the company. Transport and waste removal are both contracted out services. Product Control: There is a product development procedure detailing the process steps and documentation held for customer driven development work. Development work is mainly restricted to crumbs, batters and sauces and as such, the suppliers of these materials carry out a lot of the work. Product is analysed on line hourly by trained QC staff External chemical and microbiological analyses are carried out at a UKAS accredited external laboratory. The result turn around is typically ten days. There is an investigation into the possibility of bringing the microbiological testing into a feasible in-house solution. The testing procedures preferred are the rapid methods that are now available on the market. These allow for rapid enumeration and identification in unprecedented speeds compared to traditional plating methods. Because of the simplicity of the tests, it reduces the degrees of error that might be entertained in old style methods, and also it helps to simplify the lab quality manual. All of these rapid methods are AOAC accredited methods and are thus suitable for ISO 17025 standards, which is a pre-requisite for the accreditation edicts stated for BRC compliance. Products coded to allow stock rotation, and on-site stock levels kept to a minimum. The cold store has the capacity for approximately 600 pallets, which are on a mobile racking system. Metal detection is carried out on all products at 3.5mm non-fe and 3.5mm fe. Legislation is on the way to incorporate testing using S. Steel rods as well, using the same sensitivity levels. Product is released based on on-line QC testing. A non-conformance procedure is used to prevent the despatch of non-conforming product and its restriction to quarantine. Process Control: Control of sauce cooking and processing is closely monitored by QC and thermographs are in place to verify sauce cooking profiles. QC also regularly verifies process parameters and freezer temperatures. Continuous quantity control monitoring equipment is in place on the coated fish line. Check-weigh systems are calibrated at the start of each day following a detailed calibration procedure. Hourly QC checks and daily taste panels verify process parameters and specifications requirements have been fulfilled and all measuring equipment is calibrated at appropriated frequencies. A small amount of kosher product is processed on site and the delivery processing and despatch of kosher materials is closely monitored. Personnel: Staffs trained to NVQ levels 1 and 2 in hygiene and safe product handling by external consultants. Plans are in place to introduce an in-house training scheme. The Q.A. supervisor holds a CIEH certificate of Advanced Food Hygiene. Once they complete the CIEH professional trainers’ certificate, it will allow them to train new staffs, and re-iterate to current, basic food hygiene and H&S. Hygiene rules are also available in the staff handbook, given at induction. Induction includes hygiene and H&S requirements, fire drill procedures including a tour of the facility (highlighting emergency exits), company objectives and the review of the individual’s accountability level. Staff and visitors complete a basic medical questionnaire before entering the factory. Protective clothing provided and laundered by â€Å"Brooks† based in Hull and only specialising in laundering of food industry clothing. Supervisory staff and line leaders trained to NVQ levels 3. Detailed training records are in place, but not review on a frequent basis. Section 3 Improvement strategy Recommendations on enhancement Why did it fail? What can be done? The overall result of this audit is promising. The main sections that are in need of improvement are the cleaning and management systems. With regards to the cleaning controls one of the biggest deficiencies is that there were no daily cleaning logs in place at the time of the audit. These are necessary to verify that all of the pieces of equipment that has been used during the course of the production shift have been cleaned effectively. This should also incorporate a list of equipment that needs weekly or monthly cleaning, similar to the engineers’ protective maintenance system. Provisions are in place to indicate cleaning frequency, but by combining this with a daily cleaning log a system of records can be obtained to help with any ‘Due Diligence’ defences that might need to be called into play. The preventative step to reduce the microbial and soil loads within the factory are the cleaning schedules, but the due diligence defence are the daily logs. These are a record confirmation that the schedule has been implemented, and also provides accountability of who conducted the particular action that might be in question. It also helps the management team to assess the manning levels required for a particular cleaning regime. By combining these logs with an effective utilisation of the Lightning ATP hygiene verification system it would be possible to more accurately monitor the effectiveness of the cleaning systems that are in place. At present the unit is not used at levels that are going to supply the monitoring team with a set of results that are statistically significant. By increasing the levels of testing with the unit, a better picture of cleanliness levels can be obtained by using the trend analysis software to scrutinize past results and to predict problems that might occur in the future. This system could also be extended to apply to incorporate hand washing checks. This could be done on a random set of checks throughout the week. It might be possible to correlate this to the expected and actual bacterial soap usage rates to see if there is a relationship. This might be an extra way to monitor the effectiveness of the staff in the own personal hygiene in relation to hand washing. The engineers need to keep an inventory of parts as a repair is carried out so that all pieces are accounted for upon completion so as to eliminate the possible physical contamination problem, or at least to identify if there is one. A number of hose pipes were observed around the factory, liberally strewn on the floor. This is not bad GMP; it also creates an impression of untidiness and not caring for not only visitors, but also to other staff. Perhaps the purchasing or some hose reel storage units. If these hoses were kept on one of these units, it would automatically reel in and is then kept neatly on the wall, off the floor and out of the way of people walking around the factory. During the course of the audit the food waste skip was left open. This leaves the door open to many potential problems. The first is that it has a potential to attract pests. By leaving the skip doors open is may provides a food source for advantageous vermin. It was observed that there were some birds on the fence which might have been attracted by the residue surrounding the skip. To eliminate this problem construction of a reaching handle for the skip door should be made. By keeping the skip door closed it prevents vermin from entering the skip to scavenge for food. With the skip door closed, thus stopping pests from gaining a free food store, the area around the skip must be kept clear also; otherwise keeping the door closed is a futile effort. This area not only needs to be swept, but also cleaned down with a detergent to emulsify the fatty residue left from the batter scraps. This would also help to make the area safer for the employees as it would make the area left prone to causing slippages, and this is especially important as there is a small set of steps out there. There is no provision for persons to wash their hands upon re-entering the factory after going to the food skip. There person would have to go to the basins outside the packaging area. A small basin or alcohol station should be installed to prevent this. The main body of the factory was in very good condition. There were a few incidences that need to be rectified in order to improve the grade. Around the sauce making area, the ceiling tiles above them had some signs of mould growth. This is an indication that the ventilation is perhaps inadequate for that area. Some form of steam extraction unit might need to be investigated in that area. In the short term, regular cleaning with a sterilizer (with some form of mould growth inhibitor) would suffice, but this would only deal with the symptoms, and not deal with the route cause. The sauce agitators in this area are in need of recovering. The motors on the agitators have some small areas of paint flaking from them. Even though the paint is blue in colour, it provides a potential physical contamination problem. This needs to be tackled in several ways. The first and easiest to do is to recover the motors. The motors can be covered with a stainless steel covering which would prevent both paint flakes falling into the sauce, but also dirt accumulation on the motor. Another method is to use an alternative agitator motor. There are several on the market, and several of these are not mounted directly above the sauce making kettles. There are also some other methods for sauce production, that if increased production were to be required, then they should defiantly be investigated. Another area in the factory that could benefit from additional extraction/ventilation is directly surrounding the coating line. When the fryer is producing breaded products, then the first stage crumb, which is a fine crumb, causes a lot of dust to be blown in the air. This causes excessive dust accumulation on the pipe works above the fryer line. This needs additional cleaning to remove the dust in this area. Perhaps a form of extraction system should be investigated in this area. As a minor point, there was also a small pool of water surrounding the con-air compressor units. This implies that the floor does not bevel in the right direction. Again this is a situation that has a long term objective, but also has a short term measure. The long term goal is to re-lay the floor in that area to make the floor slope in the right direction (i.e. from the wall to the drain). The short term solution is to have the cleaners regularly squeegee the floor of water. Standing water is a particular problem in that it provides excellent breeding ground for Listeria spp. Bacteria. Listeria is a food borne bacteria that is naturally found in the environment. By providing pools of standing water, it magnifies the problem and opens the potential for increased incidences of Listeria monocytogenes poisoning. It is a strange practice that although there are manager and team leader meetings on a regular basis, there were no supervisor meetings held. This is a gross deficiency, not for GMP, but for the lack of communicational strokes that are missed from these meetings. By conducting these meetings a dialogue can be maintained between the higher levels of management and the junior levels. During these sessions company objectives can be relayed, problems considered, and grievances examined. It is also an excellent opportunity to provide motivation to the staff and to keep them apprised of important happenings within the company, such as potential sales, production turnover, NPD and the direction of the company. These meeting should be implemented effectively immediately. If not in their own right, then try combining the team leader meetings. This may pose a problem with truthful communication if the team leaders feel inhibited by the presence of the supervisors, especially if they have any grievances with them. The omission of the supervisor meetings exacerbates the next point. That is the cross communication of ideas and instructions between departments. This point is discussed in more detail in the second overview of the audit. The job descriptions that are in place for the key positions within the factory are deficient in the totality. I would suggest a review of these be taken with the specific aim to include the individuals’ main duties and responsibilities, full accountability, and any health and safety requirements that are obligatory to know. By providing a comprehensive description it helps the individual to identify their own progress against what is expected of them. It would also help to identify any training needs by comparing what the individuals’ actual abilities to what is needed for that position. During an appraisal a gauge of competency can be made against the standard and a measure of feedback can be relayed to the person. This also ties into the fact that no records are kept of personal record reviews. These need to be conducted on a regular occasion, and if they are being conducted at the moment, then they need to be recorded. There are some clear objectives that have been identified and now need to be applied and rectified to improve the factory as a whole. Section 4 Conclusions Overview of progression stratagems Step by step guide Structure and Fabric * Hand washing basin/ alcohol station to be installed by exit to food skip. * Foods skip needs to be looked at and a handle constructed to enable the lid to be closed. * Sauce kettles needs to be looked at for possible installation of extraction units. * Sauce agitator motors needs to be covered to prevent paint flaking into product. * Hose pipes to be placed into self reeling units. * Pool of water needs investigating around con-air units. Floor needs re-laying in that area. * Dust accumulation above fryer area. Additional extraction needed. Pest prevention * Pallet shed door needs to be kept closed. Pallets stored away from walls in storage. * Some drain covers missing and needs replacing. * Catch tray analysis needs to be done. Cleaning systems * Daily cleaning logs introduced. * Engineers inventory of parts during a repair to prevent contamination. * Effective utilisation, and expansion, of ATP hygiene monitoring system. Management Controls * Introduction of supervisor meetings. * Additional training to supplement and increase knowledge of GMP systems, Food hygiene and legislation. * Review of job descriptions. * Record employee appraisals. Section 5 References Background / further reading. Including bibliography Hygiene for Management, Sprenger. R. A. 1998 (8th Ed) Cleaning, Dillion M, et al Inspirational Supervisor, Shaw J. 1999 FdSc Food manufacture management GMP Course work notes, Dillion M. 2002 Log book & Overviews Overviews Part 1: Basic findings from two sections of the manual. Section 1 – Structure and Fabrication The factory has a logical process flow and the buildings are of sound construction. All internal factory wall surfaces are panelled with a lowered false ceiling and smooth resin floors. Equipment is industrial food grade standard and appears to be well maintained. A preventative planned maintenance system is in operation and resourced by a competent engineering department. The work wear is situated in a separate clean changing area immediate on entrance to the production area. The pest control is out-sourced to Rentokil (initial services) with no signs of infestation problems to report. OBS 1: The floor is made of an impervious material and when combinations of two immiscible liquids (such as oil and water) mix, it causes some sections of the floor around the fryer area are slippery. Recommendation – Review the cleaning schedule for this area to include a protocol stating that the floor in that area is to be cleaned as often as required throughout the production day, in addition to the usual scheduled cleans. Another suggestion would be to use a floor covering/mat to make the area more non-slip. Timescale – 30days OBS 2: There was a small pool of standing water around the con-air units during production. Recommendation – The long-term goal would be to re-lay/repair that section of floor to provide an adequate slope to provide water run-off into the drainage channels. Action to be taken place in the mean while would be to revise the cleaning schedule to include that the area is to be cleared as often as required throughout the production day. Timescale – 90 days OBS 3: There was no steam extraction above the sauce making kettles giving rise to N/C1. N/C1: Evidence was noted by observation and noted, audit checklist ref: GMP Section 1 -ref 1.8.2, that there was the beginnings of mould build up on the ceiling tiles above the sauce kettles. Recommendation – Investigate the possible methods of fume extraction best suited to the needs of the task. Possible installation of an extractor cowling. Action that can be introduced quickly is that a revision of the cleaning schedule to include weekly/fortnightly/ or as required cleaning to be undertaken in that area using a detergent with mould growth inhibitor. Timescale – 90days Section 2 – Storage Facilities Storage or R.M, WIP, finished goods, packaging and tainting elements are well segregated with observed codes of practice to prevent cross contamination. Products are coded to allow stock rotation on a FIFO basis and the stock levels that are kept on site are kept to a minimum. There are no contractual off-site storage facilities used. Products are released on the basis of on-line QC testing. Procedures are in place regarding damaged or defective goods segregation and disposal. OBS 1: Only visual checks are made of the contracted out logistics company’s vehicles. Recommendation – Revise an audit schedule to visit their head office so as to not only audit the vehicles used for the transportation of goods, but also to review the company policies and procedures regarding GMP practices. Timescale – 90days Part 2: Area to improve. The area of greatest need is management control, especially in relation to motivation of staffs and inter-departmental communication. A highly motivated workforce can increase the potential output efficiency greatly, without the need for costly capital expenditure. â€Å"Poor communication is the catalyst for future problems† John Shaw, Business consultant The vast majority of problems within the workplace arise due to the lack of or inadequate communication between colleagues. All members of the organisation must develop their verbal and written skills to allow for ease of dialogue between the two parties. Regular dialogue is essential for the pooling together of ideas and suggestions that helps to minimise problems and help to achieve the company objectives. Employees must be able to interpret management edicts and be able to pass on these instructions to other staffs clearly and concisely in order to achieve peak performance. One opinion that might be made is that the company’s impersonal uses of memos are substituting important meetings that would be held to discuss some of the key issues. By conducting regular meetings to open up a dialogue for discussion, it would help to eliminate any confusion that might have arisen because of their own interpretation of what is trying to be stressed in the communiquà ¯Ã‚ ¿Ã‚ ½. By opening a dialogue between colleagues, it helps to make them feel a part of the team because they are being consulted and being offered to stress their opinions and grievances. During the meetings, it lets the individual know exactly what is being expected of them to do, with little chance for error. Once the individual knows the parameters in which they are expected to perform, and then the individual has some attainable guidelines on how to conduct him or herself around the workplace. Being made part of a team is one essential tool in the motivation of staffs. By including their opinions within any debate, it helps to raise that person’s self-esteem. Once a person begins to become motivated, it often leads to greater job satisfaction. Job satisfaction is a combination of hard work and competence. Employees who reflect pride in their work are an infectious source of inspiration to others. This can be seen again in persons whom take personal pride and lead by example. Motivation is a key component to modern businesses. Staffs should take every opportunity to motivate others constantly. One way to encourage your staff is to let them know what is required of them by defining the day’s objectives. Use of praise and encouragement inspire maximum performance from an individual from a few choice words or phrases. Where an individual or team needs berating if they have made a mistake, remain calm and resolve the problem through constructive criticism. This is where the situation is given an explanation of what went wrong, gentle words to re-enforce the need that it does not re-occur, and gives further guidance on how it can be avoided in the future. It is imperative that if it is an individual involved, then take them to one side to discipline them. This way you are not undermining them and therefore their personal dignity is maintained. Another critical instruction is not to overreact to minor problems. Destructive and unwarranted criticism is harmful to morale and can easily sweep across a work force. It is also a good idea to be receptive to reasonable grievances that they might have and suggestions that they might make. Motivation encourages individuals and teams to continually achieve the company’s goals through sustained peak performance. Part 3 Cleaning and the Law Cleaning plays a fundamental part of food hygiene. It is pivotal in preventing contamination of both microbiological and chemical, but it also helps to make the indicator signs of pest infestation easier to spot. All cleaning comprises of four factors: * Heat * Mechanical energy * Chemical energy * Contact time Cleaning is usually a five stage process (although not exclusively). 1) Pre-clean 2) Main clean 3) Rinse 4) Disinfect 5) Final rinse 6) Drying The relative energy and time components of a cleaning programme can differ greatly. This is all dependants on the load of soil age, the chemical properties of the cleaning agent, and the surface to be cleaned. Staffs should receive clear concise instruction on how to correctly conduct the cleaning schedule. The chemicals used within this factory are as follows: Chemical Action Fatsolve Surfactant degreasing detergent Bleach Hypochlorite based disinfectant Sparkle Surfactant degreasing detergent Acid foam Acidic de-scaler Caustic floor cleaner Alkaline (NaOH) floor cleaner Caustic pearls Alkaline (NaOH) fryer cleaner Tego 2001 Biocidal disinfectant/detergent combination All staffs that will be handling these products for use in hygiene must receive full training and monitored for competency and efficiency. All of these products must comply with the Health and Safety at Work Act 1974 to protect the employee whom is to be using these chemicals. This Act states specific legislation to include: The Control of Substances Hazardous to Health Regs, 1994 (SI. 1994 No. 3246) (COSHH) These regulations require employers to assess the hazards and provide suitable controls. Implementation is by means of risk assessment. COSHH is concerned with chemicals that can be classified as toxic, harmful, corrosive or irritant. All of the products used within the body of the factory are supplied with all COSHH safety sheets and are filed in the technical department. Each of these products is mentioned in the company HACCP plan to include the risk assessment of these products. Chemicals (Hazards, Information & Packaging) Regs, 1993 (CHIP) Again, this states that all chemicals sold must be supplied with a COSHH safety sheet provided for the purchaser by the supplier. This must include detailed information about the product, its hazard classification under CHIP regulations. It is also prohibited to decant harmful chemicals into unmarked containers. Personal Protective Equipment (PPE) at work Regs, 1992 These regulations enforce the employer to provide all necessary PPE required for a specific task so as to minimise the health and safety risks that the employees might be subjected to. There are several good reasons why effective cleaning is so important besides those mentioned earlier: * It creates a good visual impression for both workers and visitors alike giving a sense that the business cares. * Helps to maximise the efficiency and costing of several types of products. For example, if a sauce is left to build up deposits, then it would restrict the diameter of the pipe work, making the motor have to run harder to pump product through, thus reducing the lifetime of that component. Its also helps to reduce wastege * Legal obligations. It is that final point which needs further explaining. The food safety Act, 1990 This law makes it an offence to contaminate food so that it would be unreasonable to expect it to be used for human consumption in its current state. It also states that a food proprietor and staffs must identify all steps that are critical to food safety and minimise those risks. This is further backed up by the Food Safety (GFH) Regs, 1995 This states: * Premises must be kept clean, designed to facilitate cleaning, and to protect against the accumulation of dirt. * Make it a requirement for all food business proprietors to identify any step in activities of the business which is critical to food safety, and to introduce restrictive controls at those points identified. This law allows an enforcement officer to raise a non-conformance on the actual presence of dirt, and does not have to prove that that soilage poses a risk to health There is a clear legal and moral obligation that wherever there is a risk to food, a business proprietor must ensure that the working premises are kept clean so as to minimise the risks to public health. These responsibilities must be stressed to all employees not only in their induction period, but also sporadically throughout their employment. Part 4: PEST in relation to OEE During the course of this audit, an OEE analysis was conducted on one of the production lines (See OEE exercise workbook). The aim of GMP is to improve the manufacturing performance, and by using OEE calculations it is possible to gain a quantifiable index of performance. Using the precepts behind GMP it is possible to identify areas that could benefit from improvement so as to improve production performance. The identification of the â€Å"seven wastes† which are the non-value added and also the value added sections of a production period are vital. It is the main objective to reduce the first, and increase the latter. With regards to the production run that was studied several strategies can be entertained to help to minimise waste due to the above mentioned wastes. Firstly, fish cakes are products that produce only small amounts of waste due to the fact that defects can often be re-worked during the same production run. Defect cores can be removed from the line by operatives and then deposited back in the koppens former to be re-moulded into another cake. Reducing the throughput can often help reduce the rejects levels. Running at just a few strokes under the maximum for the line might make it more cost effective to reduce the throughput by a minimal amount in order to dramatically decrease the amount of reject product. By doing this the ‘right first time’ figure could increase to raise overall production efficiency. If speed is the overriding factor, i.e. the faster the speed, the higher the defect rate, then just by reducing the stroke rate of the machine, the amount of over-processing required would be reduced. If however speed were not the decisive factor, then an investigation of the machines capabilities would have to be reviewed, and if it cannot be removed, then do you accept this defect level caused by the machine, or do you evaluate the possibility of purchasing a more efficient piece of kit? With regards to the machine that is in place, the Koppens former is approximately 10-15yrs old and forms cakes by using hydraulic cups and a forming plate. Over the years the maximum output of the machine has dropped by approximately 25% from the max of 40s/m to now 30s/m. Would it be better to buy a new piece of kit. Perhaps the purchasing an AEW forming machine? Unfortunately these are costly pieces of kit. Costing in the range of à ¯Ã‚ ¿Ã‚ ½250K. This is a large prohibiting factor in an SME of the size of the company in question, with their limited financial resources. In order to justify a capital expenditure of that magnitude, a significant order would have to be procured to allow for the required payback period to make it a cost effective purchase. It is almost chicken and egg scenario. With a new piece of machinery of this nature the potential for increased throughput of not only this line, but also of others would rise significantly, but monies or orders to cover payback periods would have to be secured before capital expenditure is considered. It is a difficult political climate with retail customers at present. More and more of the major multiples only issue contracts for periods of usually a year (although there has recently been a downward trend to decrease these to six monthly). So a guarantee off continued business is not certain, which prohibits the purchase of the new machinery. The small margins also affect the staff efficiency and retention (thus quality). Because margins are tight, only a small amount on the top of national minimum wage can be applied. This can limit not only the response to job advertisements, but also with staff retention and loyalty. With a higher staff turnover, the quality of staffs employed often reduces, thus affecting the throughputs and efficiencies of the lines. This interplay of factors is what has to be investigated further upon before resolutions can be found. Identification is just the first step in an overall improvement plan. Appendix 1: Summary Sheets GMP Audit Material Enclosed in this booklet are copies of the audit checklists that you can use to audit your site against each element of GMP. You should aim to audit 2 elements of the standard each week and use the techniques discussed in week 1 on problem solving to objectively assess each element of the standard. If you wish to discuss any elements in more detail then contact one of the tutors on the course who will be able to help you clarify any problems or issues that you may have. IMPORTANT You will need to copy the food safety and hygiene audit assessment form each week, as you will need to use this to summarize for each assignment. Using the Sample Assessment Forms for the 10 sections of Good Manufacturing Practice identify: 1. Areas of Strength and Weakness for the GMP sections for your own plant or operation, using the checklists provided. 2. The causes of problems which are inherent with the areas of weakness 3. The barriers and aids which will effect the improvement process 4. Prioritise the actions needed to improve your Good Manufacturing Practice needs, using the assessment forms, which should be included within your weekly assignment. A grading system has been given on each checklist. You may use this grading system to help you to assess your factory, but feel free to modify this. If you do modify the system then you should explain, quite clearly, how the grading or scoring system is used. Key to the ABCD grading system for assessing the sections and elements of the GMP standard: Grade A Excellent Scores 50 points. Grade A scored when there are no safety problems or issues. Requires no further action. Grade B Satisfactory Scores 30 points. Actionable within defined timescale as agreed at audit. Grade C Major Scores 10 points. Actionable within one working week. Grade D Critical Scores 0 points. A Grade D is automatically awarded when a critical safety issue is identified, and is actionable immediately.